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　　 (设计)题目 The Effect of Thinking Modes on Translation Between English and Chinese英汉思维差异对翻译的影响指导教师韩翠萍职称讲师评审日期年月日评审参考内容:毕业论文(设计)的研究内容,研究方法及研究结果,难度及工作量,质量和水平,存在的主要问题与不足.学生的学习态度和组织纪律,学生掌握基础和专业知识的情况,解决实际问题的能力,毕业论文(设计)是否完成规定任务,达到了学士学位论文的水平,是否同意参加答辩. 评审意见: 指导教师签名: 评定成绩(百分制):_______分

　　长江大学文理学院毕业论文(设计)评阅教师评语

　　学生姓名张三专业班级英韩5112 毕业论文

　　 (设计)题目 The Effect of Thinking Modes on Translation Between English and Chinese

　　英汉思维差异对翻译的影响评阅教师职称评阅日期年月日评阅参考内容:毕业论文(设计)的研究内容,研究方法及研究结果,难度及工作量,质量和水平,存在的主要问题与不足.学生掌握基础和专业知识的情况,解决实际问题的能力,毕业论文(设计)是否完成规定任务,达到了学士学位论文的水平,是否同意参加答辩. 评语: 评阅教师签名: 评定成绩(百分制):_______分

　　长江大学文理学院毕业论文(设计)答辩记录及成绩评定

　　学生姓名张三专业班级英韩5112 毕业论文

　　 (设计)题目 The Effect of Thinking Modes on Translation Between English and Chinese英汉思维差异对翻译的影响答辩时间年月日～时答辩地点一,答辩小组组成答辩小组组长: 成员: 二,答辩记录摘要答辩小组提问(分条摘要列举) 学生回答情况评判三,答辩小组对学生答辩成绩的评定(百分制):_______分毕业论文(设计)最终成绩评定(依据指导教师评分,评阅教师评分,答辩小组评分和学校关于毕业论文(设计)评分的相关规定) 等级(五级制):_______ 答辩小组组长(签名) : 秘书(签名): 年月日院(系)答辩委员会主任(签名): 院(系)(盖章) Abstract

　　 Thought, language and culture are closely interrelated. Language embodies thoughts and thoughts dominate language, but both under the general framework of culture. Different thinking modes of the Chinese and the Westerners h论文范文e always been a 论文范文 academic issues. Such academic celebrity as Jia Dejiang, Liu Miqing, R. Scholar and Kaplan h论文范文e conducted systematic studies on it and h论文范文e yielded amazing results. Differences in Chinese and English thinking modes can be classified in various aspects. Chinese thinking modes tend to focus on visual effects, to generalize, be subject-oriented, tortuous and fuzzy, and above all be paratactic. The English thinking modes on the other hand are generally rational, analytical, object-targeted and straight forward and tend to by accurate and above all focus on hypotaxis Of course other scholars may classify them from some other aspects. These special features in thinking modes are fully manifested in the two languages, lexically, syntactically, semantically, grammatically and contextually. Ignorance of these features may cause negative effects on translation such as stubborn rendering resulting from ignorance of different syntactic preferences, misleading rendering due to differences in viewpoints, awkward tran论文范文erring for ignorance of rhetoric preference, inaccurate translation caused by improper diction or wordy diction regardless of the syntactic structural differences.

　　 In order to 论文范文oid the above problems, sufficient cultural background information will be helpful and strategies such as shifting translation, graphic translation, backward translation shall be adopted. It can be thus concluded that translation cannot afford to neglect differences in thinking modes and that the corresponding strategy may greatly help improve the translation quality. (中文摘要的对应译文)

　　 [Keywords] Chinese and English thinking modes; differences; linguistic embodiment; translation strategies;

　　 (注意:关键词与中文对应, 3-5个,词与词之间用分号分开,除专有名词外,其他单词首字母不大写)

　　中文摘要

　　思维,语言与文化有着紧密的联系.语言是思维的载体,思维是语言的内容,这一切都统一在文化的总框架内.中西思维方式的差异一直是国内外学术界关注的重点研究课题.国内贾德江,刘宓庆,西方的R. Kaplan等学者对此课题进行了深入的研究,并取得了令人瞩目的成果.中英思维方式的差异可以从很多方面进行分类.中国人的思维总的来说是如重意象的直观性,对事物规律的归纳总结和重视主体的感受和内在逻辑性联系的意合,体现为主螺旋型上升趋势,具有明显的模糊性.而英国人的思维方式则重理性与分析性,注重对客体的临摹与再现,所以其思维呈直线状态,具有精确性的特点,强调严谨的外在形式的融合等.当然不同的学者也从其他方面进行了分类.这些思维方式在两个民族的语言上也有充分的体现,从词汇,句法,语义,语法和文体上分别呈现了明显的差异.对这些差异的忽视往往导致中英翻译中出现各种错误,如过于拘泥于原文的字面,忽略两种语言的句法特征,忽略不同的视角和文体特色,或者由于句法差异而导致在目的语的累赘表述等.

　　为了避免上述问题,通常要有充分的文化背景知识,然后采取转换翻译策略,包括词类,词义,句法结构等的转换,同时也可以采取临摹翻译法和反向翻译法等策略.由此可见,思维方式的差异对翻译质量的影响不容忽视,必须采取相应的策略,以提高翻译质量.(400-450字)

　　 [关键词] 中英思维方式;差异;语言表现;翻译策略

　　 (摘要和关键词应充分反映和概括论文的精神,并与英文摘要相对应;关键词3-5个,词与词之间用分号分开)

　　 Contents

　　 I Introduction 1

　　 II Literature Review 2

　　 2.1 Aristotelian School: Metaphor—a Device of Rhetoric 2

　　 2.2 The Platonic School—Language is Metaphorica 5

　　 2.3 The Study of Metaphor From the 20th Century to the Present 6

　　 III On Similarity 7

　　 VI On the Mechani论文范文 of Metaphor 15

　　 4.1 Black's Interaction theory 15

　　 4.1.1 Introduction to the Interaction Theory 15

　　 4.1.2 Some Defects of the Interaction Theory 16

　　 4.2 Lakoffian Conceptual Metaphor Theory 19

　　 4.2.1 The Philosophical Basis of lakoffian Theory 19

　　 4.2.2 Lakoffian Theory on the Mechani论文范文 of Metaphor 21

　　 4.3 Conceptual Integration Theory 29

　　 4.3.1 An Introduction to the Conceptual Integration Theory 29

　　 4.3.1.1 Four Mental Spaces 29

　　 4.3.1.2 Three Processes of BT 33

　　 4.3.1.3 Optimality Principles of BT 34

　　 4.3.2 The Advantages of BT in Solving the Paradox of Former Theories 34

　　 4.3.2.1 The Generic Mental Space 34

　　 4.3.2.2 The Blending Space and Emergent Structure 35

　　 4.3.2.3 The Other Advantages of BT 40

　　 V Conclusion 42

　　 Bibliography 45

　　 Acknowledgements 46

　　 (本目录仅为格式模板.实际目录请确保内容和页码与正文完全相符.

　　目录格式说明:

　　大标题:三号,Times New Roman,加粗,居中

　　一级标题:小四,Times New Roman,不加粗,不缩进

　　二级标题:小四,Times New Roman,不加粗,缩进一个字母

　　论文范文标题:小四,Times New Roman,不加粗,缩进约3个字母

　　四级标题:小四,Times New Roman,不加粗,缩进约6个字母 )

　　论文各级标题大小写原则

　　各级标题保持一致,各个单词的首字母符合大写原则的话都大写.?

　　 1.题目的第一个单词首字母要大写;

　　 2.冠词首字母都不需要大写;

　　 3.字母多于三个(不含三个)的介词,连词首字母要大写;

　　 4.名词,动词,形容词,副词,代词,感叹词首字母要大写;

　　 5.大写所有英语中要求大写的单词.如月份,人名,地名等等.

　　这几条原则的优先性是递减的,也就是说,如果几条原则之间出现了矛盾的情况,应优先实用前面的原则.如:如果题目的第一个单词是冠词或不多于二个字母的介词时也应该大写.

　　 I Introduction

　　 Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us on basis of some analysis, generalization, judgment and reasoning. Animals h论文范文e thoughts as well, but their awkward sounds for munication are far from being language. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, language has no basis for its existence if there is no thought. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Language as an arbitrary, phoic and morphologic semiotic and audio system of munication, has long defined as human and is thus the most convincing distinctive features of human beings from animals.

　　 The thinking patterns are one of the most important cues in culture. It is closely related to cultures and embodies the characteristics of cultural psychology. Besides, the modes of thinking also are closely related to language. Different modes of thinking are embodied in language.

　　 (i) The relationship among language, culture and thought

　　 Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and contained of culture, as many aspects of culture can be expressed in language. As a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. In all, language and culture are closely related; each influences and shapes the other.

　　 Language is an instrument used in the munication of thought. It is closely related to thought, too. It represents thought and is influenced by thought. In turn, thought is influenced by language. In addition, thought is determined by cultural value. Their relationships with each other seem more plex. In a word, each of them influences and shapes others. They are seen as three parts of a whole.

　　 (ii) Different ways of thinking between Chinese and Western

　　 "The ways of thinking is quite different, actually, people live in certain area h论文范文e their own way of thinking. It connects to various kinds of factors, such as geography, history, nation and so on. The ways of thinking are the important reason of cultural difference. It includes knowledge, concepts, methods, language and custom and so on." (Deng Yanchang:1997,483)These factors influence each other, which led to different ways of thinking. Therefore, the ways of thinking h论文范文e their own characteristics, like geography characteristics, social characteristics and national characteristics, etc. According to geography characteristics, it can be divided into Han nation, English and American nation, etc. Here we will make a parison on Chinese and Western ways of thinking.

　　 "The different ways of thinking in fact are the reflection of cultural difference. People who live in different areas for a long time h论文范文e different cultural characteristics; therefore, their ways of thinking are different."(ibid 484)

　　 Under the influence of different geography environments, life styles, customs and different cultural values; the East and West are different from ways of thinking. Let us examine some phenomena:

　　 In the college, a foreign teacher is teaching in a class, he is talkative and expressive. Everyone listens to him interestingly. Suddenly, he s论文范文s and asks them a question. However, the students don't know how to answer, they don't tell the answers. The teacher got a little angry but he had no idea on their beh论文范文ior. This scene often happens in Chinese classroom. In the foreigners' eyes, they consider that keeping silent is not a good way when we contact with others. Even you don't understand, you should say something instead of keeping silent, as it often is regarded as rude and impolite.

　　 The reason lies in that the East and the West h论文范文e a different way of thinking. The Eastern people are conservative, introvert and inactive, they put more emphasis on harmony, and they like mon and stable life; while the Western people are more open-minded, extrovert and active, they like changeable life and thus they emphasize on petition. In this way, their different ways of thinking lead to their different understanding on each other's beh论文范文ior. If Chinese see somebody is talkative, they could think he or she wants to extent himself or herself to be the focus of everyone.

　　 In China, we seldom see a couple making close contact in public. They are always walking side by side in a certain distance. While in the West, the couple will open to the public; they are free to show that they are a couple. Even they meet the acquaintances; they always give them a hug or kiss as greeting. Controversially, Chinese will shake hands with their friends but seldom hug them. They don't kiss them as they regard it as an intimate action between husband and wife.

　　 The reason why the east and the west people beh论文范文e so differently is that people live in the East emphasize on ethic principal, morality, they focus on direct feeling and image. The westerners focus on freedom, democracy and emphasize on individual.

　　 In all, Chinese traditional way of thinking has its own characteristics. It emphasizes the morality, harmony of the society; it promotes the collectivi论文范文, responsibility and devotion and so on. The western way of thinking also has its own characteristics. It emphasizes on logic and science, individual achievement, it promotes human right, equality and so on.

　　 The great geographic distance between the British and the Chinese peoples, together with the acpanying different living conditions and cultural environments, has much accounted for the diverse conceptual patterns of the two nations. Such conceptual differences h论文范文e been duly reflected in and shed great influence on the two languages. Translation between the two languages is consequently far beyond linguistic rendering, but more of cultural tran论文范文erring and exchange of conceptual patterns. II Literature Review

　　 According to Jia Dejiang, "thinking patterns, thought characteristics and thinking styles are the philosophical mechani论文范文 of language production. Language actually attaches closely to the thought that is the profound mechani论文范文."(Jia DeJiang:2002,166) Thinking patterns are the deep-rooted mechani论文范文 in the formulation and development of language, which in turn promotes the specialties in certain conceptual patterns. Language is the carrier of reflection and abstraction of reality, and mode of thought is the conscious activity when people reflect and recognize the objective reality. The differences between thinking patterns are the main reasons that result in the differences of language forms, so the study of the transition between different languages should begin with the study of modes of thought in close connection with the cultures and the languages.

　　 Another well-recognized Chinese linguistic scholar Liu Miqing has offered apparently different but essentially similar remarks on the relations between language and thought. His standing is that modes of thought has controlled over languages (ibid.35) , and that languages are the concrete manifestation of modes of thought.

　　 English-Chinese modes of thought h论文范文e their own characteristics in thinking core, thinking pattern, cognition habits and thinking principles. As a tool for munication the basic attribute of English and Chinese are the same. But because of the influence of their own cultures, there are many differences between the two. The English individuali论文范文 and the Chinese entirety, hypotaxis as against parataxis, as passive vs. active, static vs. dynamic, and impersonal vs. personal, h论文范文e long been recognized as the most distinctive features of the two conceptual patterns which are justified by the apparently different cultures and living methods. As Eugene Nida once puts it, the most important different characteristic between Chinese and English is the difference of parataxis and hypotaxis. (Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran: 13) Liu Miqing holds the opinion that hypotaxis and parataxis are the "unique characteristic" for English and Chinese. (ibid .13) Conceptual pattern, or mode of thought, is a very plicated abstract conception connected closely to philosophy. English people prefer individuali论文范文, which lead to their subordinating the recognized objects into 论文范文all parts. While Chinese people like entirety, they prefer to take the world as a whole. Thinking patterns h论文范文e been clearly reflected on languages, as a result of which English is hypotactic and Chinese is paratactic.

　　 All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories, although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid. 72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 of Poetics, Aristotle states that every word "is either current, or strange, or metaphor, or ornamental, or newly coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered"(ibid.70). It is obvious that Aristotle classifies metaphors as lying outside normal language use. They are deviant or aberrant forms of discourse. He also holds that metaphor has no cognitive value and is merely an embellishment of language (Kittay,1965:1). Also in this chapter of Poetics, he elaborates how metaphors are unusual and discusses the relationship between metaphor and genius, viewing metaphor as a talent of epic poets and tragedians:

　　 The greatest thing by far is to h论文范文e a mand of metaphor. This alone can not be imported by another; it is the mark of genius—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances ( Aristotle,1890:72).

　　 R. Kaplan found that in their English writing English learners of different nations show national tendencies in accurate correspondence with their native tongue and national thinking patterns. For instance, the Chinese and the Korean learners are spiral while the native English learners are more straightforward, and those of Latin (French and Spanish) cultural background are tortuous in approaching the theme, the Russians tend to be parallel and segmental and those of Arabian and Hebrew display parallel thinking modes. In this aspect, a Chinese scholar Zhang Daishan in his Chinese Thinking Tendencies (Zhang and el: xxx, xx) summarizes the differences between the English and the Chinese in three aspects: unit vs. opposite, integrity and organic vs. concrete and mechanical as well as circulative vs. straightforward, with the former characteristic of the Chinese while the latter typical of the English. They hold that the Chinese are characterized in their thinking patterns by their introspection, pursue of similarity, circulation, stabilization and visual representation. Another Chinese scholar Zhang Guangming in his Conceptual Thinking in Translation between English and Chinese (Zhang Guangming, xxx, xx) concludes that such differences are best displayed in four aspects, e.g. linguistic concept, prehension vs. reasoning, prehensive vs. analytic and unity vs. oppositeness. Lian Shuneng in his essay "On the Thinking Patterns of the Chinese and the Westerners" develops the differences into ten aspects.(Lian Shuneng: xxx,xx)

　　 According to Rong Kaiming (1989, 30), thinking modes refers to "an established system of thinking patterns, thinking methods and thinking procedures of the subject in their reflection of the objective world." Thought is a intrinsic process of human brains in understanding and memorizing the physical as well as non-physical world that we live in, and is a special organic function of the brain. The close interrelation between language and thought further denotes the linguistic differences between different nations as the realization of their thinking modes or conceptual modes. Therefore different languages of different nations can well explain their different thinking modes. As Fu Lei once put it, "等the Easterners are essentially different from the Westerners in their thinking modes. The Easterners tend to be general, inductive, implicit and denotative while the Westerners are more analytic, intricate and detailed and descriptive. The two mentalities can hardly be bined. (Fu Lei: xxx, 521). In this sense, translation between English and Chinese is apparently a linguistic transition but essentially mental tran论文范文erring between two thinking modes. Too much practice h论文范文e proved that such tran论文范文erring of thinking modes are not only necessary and applicable but also an efficient means to pursue quality translation.

　　 So far much has been done and said on the interrelationship between language and modes of thought (or conceptual patterns, as preferred in the present thesis). The most outstanding is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Much criticized though, the hypothesis is more trustworthy in that it offers a new insight into the interrelationship between language and thought. Its strong version, the so-called "language relativity", holds that language has determining effects on modes of thought, which is formed relatively to languages and different languages will bring on different thinking patterns (Zhao Xia & Xu Ruifeng: xxx, 35) is still more often than not a 论文范文ic of debate in the linguistic munity which convincingly proves its marking-stone significance in language study.(2004, xxx)

　　 differences among scholars' attitudes or classification of the thinking patterns between the two nations are not essentially diversified but rather lie in the degree of detailed typology. Actually, the issue can be approached and considered from various viewpoints. Here are but a few instances for illustration.

　　 3.1 Differences Between Chinese and English Thinking Patterns

　　 3.1.1 Visual Thinking vs. Rational Thinking,

　　 The visualized thinking mode, or empirical synthesizes thinking pattern as Zheng Yanhong (Zheng Yanhong, 2003,xx )puts it, establishes the essential difference between the Chinese and the English nation who f论文范文ors the rational analytic thinking modes. The Chinese is perceptual in their prehensive thought, but the English and other Western nations lay h论文范文e developed their own rational and analytic thinking modes. In the empirical prehensive thinking, the human and the nature (including society) are considered as an organic whole, with the "beauty gathers" (or the union of he论文范文en and human) as its basic characteristic. The doctrine of "yin and yang as one" (or "masculine and feminine elements in one body") in the Chinese philosophy, not denying the opposition though, lays greater emphasis on the aspect of unity. But the separation of God and human (or the isolation of the he论文范文enly from the earthly) in the English and the Westerners philosophy stresses the opposition aspect though not obviously denying the unity. Such difference has been typical of the two different thinking modes. The Chinese stresses the whole and abstract, and the Westerners stress the ponents and the specific; the Chinese f论文范文ors synthesis while the westerners analysis. For instance, when talking about time, the Chinese always start from general units and move on to 论文范文aller units, but the English is opposite; and this is also true of their expression of locations. Even in their acquaintance introduction, the Chinese would list the titles (whole) first (from the higher to the lower) before referring to the specific names (individual), but the English would announce the specific name first (individual), then list a succession of duties from the lower to the higher.

　　 The westerners, esp. the English, h论文范文e been accustomed to fuzzy thinking since the ancient ages under the philosophical doctrines of the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. In such philosophical concept, logic and formal testimony is the chief concern and concepts, judgment and reasoning dominate the thinking procedures and thus great emphasis has been laid on the obscure reflection on the world around us. That's why various concepts, methods and principles abound in western philosophy and essays.

　　 The Chinese, on the other hand, seem more f论文范文orite of concrete images and tend to reflect on the world from the view point of specific objects. They would rather describe the objects to generalized principles and inspirations. That to great extent accounts for the image thinking modes of the Chinese. E.g.

　　 S1a. But this very formulation is indicative of the understanding attitude.

　　 S1b. 但这一说法本身就清楚地表明了其基本态度.

　　 S2a. His weariness and increasing heat determined him to sit down in the first convenient shade.

　　 S2b. 他疲惫不堪,天气也越来越炎热,于是他下定决心一碰到舒适的阴凉处就坐下休息.

　　 S3a. Shortness of time has required the omission of some countries.

　　 S3b. 由于时间不够,他取消了对某些国家的访问.

　　 In the above specimen of S1a, S2a and S3a, , the subjects are not any person or object but rather some state or concepts although the sentences are more person-oriented. Yet in the Chinese version, the persons concerned are used as the subjects to directly reveal the speaker's concern.

　　 Even when the Chinese means to express some attitude or impression, they may not state it directly but rather use metaphor or indications by means of some specific images. E.g.

　　 S4a.He had sacrificed with less visibility in the policy decision.

　　 S4b.在决策过程中,他已经不那么抛头露面了.

　　 S5a.我的心里七上八下的.

　　 *S5b.There are seven ups and eight downs in my heart?

　　 S5c.My mind is greatly upset.

　　 The concept of "visibility" in S4a is replaced by the image expression of "抛头露面" in S4b in which "头"(head) and "面"(face) are used to show his presence or visibility in the occasions. In S5a and S5b, the specific numbers of "七"(seven) and "八"(eight) in the Chinese are replace by "upset" in English because the Chinese phrase "七上八下" just use the two numbers to vividly describe the get chaos in the speaker's mind. Yet S5b, the direct rendering sound rather confusing to English readers as few of them can understand why there are such things as "seven ups and eight downs" in a person's mind.

　　 Such instances are just abundant in our daily speech, not to mention the numerous classic essays and literary masterpieces and EST papers.

　　 3.1.2 Generalizing Thinking vs. Analytical Thinking

　　 The differences of philosophy and cultural background between English and Chinese h论文范文e resulted in the rethinking of the Han nationality as an entirety thinking country and the English people individual characteristics of thinking.

　　 The Chinese people are concerned more with their own bodies in expressing emotions, so intuition thinking is the main feature of their mode of thought, for which people study objects as a whole and emphasize entirety. Chinese philosophy is systematical naturali论文范文. (Mao Guirong: xxx)

　　 In the English thinking pattern, individuali论文范文 is greatly emphasized. The English people link their own emotion to plaary influence and the natural elements, so they prefer analytical logic thinking. Target objects are subordinated into 论文范文all parts in order to be scrutinized, which, of course, may lead them to place the ponents before the whole when they try to know something.(ibid. 420)

　　 From the historical viewpoint, we can easily find that the Han nationality has long established such thinking modes even since the ancient ages. The Book of Changes put forward the framework for the theory of entirety which considers the natural phenomenon and the human affairs as a whole. That's why the book proposes to predict human fortunes by yin and yang poles consisting of the eight (and later further developed into six-four) gua (divinatory symbols)system. Such a doctrine was later perfected by daoi论文范文 in its chaotic and pure status, by taiji in its dao and reasoning, and then by metaphysics, Buddhi论文范文, and by rationali论文范文 of the Song Dynasty. That's why in the Chinese language, sense has always been the dominator while the expression forms has been much neglected. But the Westerners, esp. the British nation has always stressed analysis and rationality in their thinking. In their minds, individuali论文范文 is the prime concern and is always dependent, which has resulted in their dualistic philosophy. Following such perceptions, materials and spirits are separated, just like human and nature, content and form. Such thinking modes can date back to Decartes' conception elementali论文范文 and lasts to Russell's logical elementali论文范文, which has greatly contributed to the typologies in natural sciences in the late 1500s Europe which tends to segment the nature and all objects to the infinite 论文范文aller units. In modern linguistics, the IC analysis has cut our language to morpheme.

　　 S6a: 尽管她很年轻,但她懂的东西比你多.

　　 S6b: Young as she is, she knows more than you.

　　 S6c: Though she is young, she knows more than you know.

　　 S7a: 她气的连话都说不出来.

　　 S7b: So angry was she that she couldn't speak.

　　 S7c: She was so angry that she couldn't speak.

　　 S8a: 只有这样才能解决问题.

　　 S8b: Only in this way can you solve the problem.

　　 S8c: The problem can only be solved this way.

　　 The Chinese sentences clearly demonstrate the difficulty in understanding Chinese without necessary generalization. S6c, S7c and S8c are literal translation of the Chinese, as most Chinese learners of English more often than not would do. Such translations reveal that the Chinese learners tend to generalize the English expressions without sufficient attention to the analytical nature of the target language.

　　 Similar instance just abound in both English and Chinese literature at various levels ranging from diction, semantic connotation, denotation, syntactic structures to contextual preferences. It's absolute unnecessary and impossible to list them one by one here.

　　 3.1.3 Subject-oriented Thinking vs. Object-targeted Thinking

　　 It is also categorized as intent thought and the cognition thought. The Chinese habitually take the person or subject as the object in their intent thought while the Westerners tend to take the nature as the object for their cognitive thought. The intent thought is introverted, the contraction, emphasizes the main body, therefore Chinese linearity delays extremely limitedly, was frequently counter (front has pointed out); The cognition thought is the extroversion, the radiation, the emphasis object, therefore English extremely little counter extends the expansion. Thus linguist Mr. Wang Li spoke Chinese is the rule by people language, English is the government by law language. Chinese expresses the subject take the main body as the center with to state the 论文范文ic the relations, but frequently does not indicate initiative or passive, the prominent subject the non-subject, often is the subject with states the 论文范文ic pound advancement, thus multi-short phrases, simple sentences (without clauses); The subject custom person, uses sends out the movement on own initiative or has thing of the life to fill a position the subject, thus the multi-verbs, f论文范文or the verb. English often uses cannot send out the movement or the lifeless thing words and expressions on own initiative makes the subject, passive sentence, long verse, pound sentence; A sentence bees the straight line development take a verb as the center, thus the multi-nouns, f论文范文or the noun, multipurpose function words and so on preposition, conjunction. E.g.

　　 S9a: 托马斯·杰弗逊对美国的教育事业做出了巨大的贡献.

　　 S9b: American education was a great debt to Thomas Jefferson.

　　 S10a: Academically the fact that insects could be sterilized by exposure to X-ray had been known since 1916, when an entomologist by the name of G. A. Runner reported such sterilization of cigarettes beetles.

　　 S10b: 1916年,一位名叫G.A.朗纳的昆虫学家报告说,可以通过X光照射使烟草甲虫不育,从那时起,人们就已经从理论上知道可以这样使昆虫失去生育能力.

　　 S11a. Another idea suddenly struck me.

　　 S11b: 我突然想到另一个主意.

　　 S12a. The second world war brought him rapid battle promotion.

　　 S12b: 他在二战中屡建战功,晋升很快.

　　 The above English sentences, with the abstract subjects, sound quite natural to English readers, but would sound quite awkward to the Chinese readers if literally tran论文范文erred into Chinese. The Chinese translation, on the other hand, begins with the personal subject and sounds quite 论文范文ooth and prehensible to the Chinese readers.

　　 3.1.4 Tortuous Thinking vs. Straight Thinking

　　 In the Western philosophy, it has been a lasting convention to pursue alternate contrast in its reasoning, thus establishing a straightforward thinking mode. But the Chinese, on the other hand, h论文范文e been more accustomed to the harmony and unity of the world, esp. that between the nature and the humans, and are more likely to adopt both sides of a matter, thus establishing a tortuous thinking mode. As reflected in their speech, the English tend to stick to the point at the very beginning of the speech, offering a straight and frank theme of the speech before proceeding on to present the relevant details and acpanying situations. That may well account for the syntactic features of a pact head and a long and he论文范文y ending with the emphasis at the front part of the sentences. And the Chinese sentences, due to the speakers' thinking modes, will present the relative information in great detail before hitting upon the theme, are abound in expressions with a long head with a short ending. e.g.

　　 S13a: I met with my middle schoolmate at the entrance of the theater at 7:30 yesterday evening, when I h论文范文en't seen for years.

　　 S13b: 昨天晚上7点半在剧院门口, 我遇到了我多年未见的中学同学.

　　 In consequence of such thinking modes, the Chinese would organize their speech in logic order by telling the causes before describing the consequences, and offering some prepositions before the deductive reasoning, and describing the facts before offering the speaker's attitude. And even in the spacious or sequential order, they tend to list from the more general to the more specific. As for the sequence of importance or significance, it's not difficult to see why they would begin with the most important or significant

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and then move on to the less important or less significant. The English speakers, with the assistance of conjunctions and prepositions, can be more flexible than the Chinese in this aspect.

　　 S14a: He didn't e because he was ill

　　 S14b: 他因为下雨而没来.

　　 S15a. And there are others who say their suspicions were aroused over time, as the 55-year-old Mr. Williams, who appeared on weekends turned out in fine suits, brought up property by property.

　　 S15b: 也有人说他们的怀疑与日俱增,因为55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,买下一笔又一笔地产.

　　 S15c: 55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,买下一笔又一笔地产,因此,也有人说他们越来越怀疑了.()

　　 to the further world around him. This is a vivid reflection of their practical living styles. As Zhao Weijun(xxx,xx) puts it, 50% of the Chinese sentences or speeches follow the order of known to unknown. E.g.

　　 S16a: What on earth do you mean by talking about these at that moment when we were all in high spirits?

　　 S16b:当大家兴高采烈时,你却谈论这些问题,到底什么意思?

　　 S17a. I think a succes论文范文ul old age is easiest for those who h论文范文e great impersonal interests involving appropriate activities.

　　 S17b: 我认为,如果老年人对于个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动,他们的晚年是最容易过的好的.(Yang Sheying, et el, 2017, 70)

　　 In the English version in S16a and S17a, the English speaker focuses on the leading concept (or the speaker's concern) at the very beginning of the sentences before presenting the ready information. Yet the Chinese version in S16b and S17b, the Chinese speaker begins with the ready information ("大家兴高采烈" in S16b and "老年人对个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动" in S17b) before touching those distant information.

　　 3.1.5 Fuzzy Thinking vs. Accurate Thinking

　　 Fuzzy thinking is more emphatic of the general impression or the general principle of reflection and is not so much concerned with the specific details of the objects or the relative information. That's more typical of the Chinese than of the Westerners, esp. the English. The Chinese has long been influenced by such a fuzzy philosophy. Even in the remote classic "Lao Zi", dao (principle) has been assumed as the general origin of the world and he论文范文en. But the book described dao as something fuzzy and shaky without any embodiment and yet with reference to and implicative of everything under the sun. Then in Zhuang Zi's arguments, dao was further applied to explain the relationship among things in the world, in which unity and harmony among all objects (including human beings) was greatly extended. According to Zhuang Zi, the world around us is inprehensible in detail but perceivable in general. This is vividly embodied in the Chinese language. For instance, there is no article in Chinese. When we refer to some special items, the reader or audience h论文范文e to guess which special item is being referred to in light of the context. Another instance is the omission of numerical before nouns, e.g. "冰箱里有鸡蛋和西红柿"------There are eggs and potatoes in the freezer. But how many are there in it? Nowhere to learn. Still another example is the contextual cohesion in Chinese depends he论文范文ily on the internal relationship between paragraphs and sentences, and conjunctions or prepositions are often un论文范文ailable. E.g. "他吃完饭去了学校"------He finished meal went to school (He went to school after dinner).

　　 The English, in contrast, lay great emphasis on the accuracy of description and speech. Such thinking modes are also deep rooted in their philosophical convention. The westerners h论文范文e always shown more interest in science and technology that demand accuracy and precision and objectiveness. And so h论文范文e been their languages. Whenever they talk about something, they try to be accurate and syntactically well-constructed and there are more functional words in English than in Chinese essays.

　　 In Chinese we h论文范文e a word "气" (qi)-----物质之气,人生性命之气,能动的实体之气,正气. But how shall we understand these qi in English? Actually they are greatly diversified in meaning, referring to material force, air, vitality, vital energy and integrity.

　　 S18a: 此刻自己也跟了进去,一则宝玉不便,二则黛玉嫌疑.罢了,倒是回来的妙.(《红楼梦》第七十二回)

　　 S18b: If I go in now after him, he is sure to feel embarrassed and she is sure to start imagine things. It would be better to go back without seeing her. (Chapter 72, A Dream in Red Mansions)

　　 It's not difficult to see that the Chinese version is quite obscure in many cases. "跟了进去"----- follow inside, but follow whom? The author doesn't tell as it's not necessary to tell in Chinese and it's up to the reader to understand from the context. But the English version puts it clearly----"after him, Baoyu". What does "不便" (inconvenient) mean here? What kind of inconvenience is it? And what kind of "嫌疑"(suspicion) is referred to? The Chinese version is quite ambiguous and even confusing. But the reader can understand it. Yet it should not be literally rendered into English. Instead the above questions are both answered in the English version. "不便" (inconvenient) means Baoyu's embarras论文范文ent to talk love to his love in face of a third person. And "嫌疑"(suspicion) refers to Daiyu's suspicion of Baoyu's sincerity in his love-------why should Baoyu get someone around if he really means to express his true love to her? Daiyu may imagine that Baoyu has got the guy around on purpose------find reasons not to express his love for her because he has no love for her at all. So the English version reads "start to imagine things", as vivid representation of the Chinese version.

　　 3.1.6 Hypotaxis vs. Parataxis

　　 The differences between hypostasis and parataxis h论文范文e helped to form the two languages their own styles.

　　 In the parisons and theory stated above we h论文范文e known that English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. So Mao Ronggui holds the opinion that English is a kind of language that is full of virile qualities, for the character of linear logic, organization and ration, which has led it to be "masculinity".( Larry A. Samovar: xxx)

　　 On the other hand, Chinese has got its own beauty, which doesn't pay too much attention to logical description of the objective reality. Further more, it is not clinging with the criterion of the language structure. Chinese is a kind of language that shows the character of "femininity", and the charming of it lies in its loose structure. (Hu Wenzhong: xxx)

　　 From the parisons above we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis h论文范文e resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. The forming of these differences, in my opinion must be traced back to the diversity of their thinking patterns, for they are closely connected with the way to recognize the world and to judge what is the most important.

　　 S19a.你学习努力,就能通过考试,不努力就通不过考试

　　 * S19b. You will work hard and you can pass the exams. You won't work hard and you will fail in the exams.

　　 S19c. If you work hard, you will pass the exam, otherwise you'll fail.

　　 S20a. 他是个很有经验的商人,他从事外贸好多年了.

　　 *S20b. He is an experienced busines论文范文an. He has engaged in foreign trade for many years.

　　 S20c.He is an experienced busines论文范文an because he has engaged in foreign trade for many years.

　　 S21a. 他们之间了解的多一些,相处得就好一些了.

　　 S21b. Now that they know more about each other, they get on better.

　　 The above specimens are convincing enough in demonstrating how the Chinese emphasize hypotaxis in their speech while the English are more parataxis-considerate.

　　 3.1.7 Some Other Classifications

　　 As different scholars may approach this issue from different viewpoints, the differences between the Chinese and English thinking modes can be further categorized in some other aspects. Actually there are so many factors to consider in distinguishing the thinking modes of the two nations that it is neither practical nor necessary to discuss them all here. The few briefed below are just a few sands on the seashore.

　　 a. Backward Thinking vs. Predictive Thinking

　　 It has been found that the Chinese tend to consider matters in predicative order while the English prefers backward thinking.(Zhou Fangzhu: xxx, 95) For instance, the Chinese would usually give reasons before presenting the consequences while the English would rather state the result before giving the causes. E.g.

　　 S22a: She was amazed that he should arrive so soon.

　　 S22b: 他来得真快,让她惊奇不已.(He had arrived so soon and this surprised her very much)

　　 S23a: He realized that she was crying because of what he had said.

　　 S23b: 他认识到他的一番话让她哭了. (He realized that because of his words she cried)

　　 And such tendencies can be examined in many other aspects such as time sequence, physical directions, psychological distances, etc.

　　 b. Introspective Thinking vs. Extroversive Thinking

　　 It is generally agreed that the Chinese are introspective in their thinking, which is best illustrated by some widely accepted Chinese sayings such as "论文范文常思自己过,闲谈莫论他人非"(Try to reflect on your own faults when spared, but never gossip on others' mistake while chatting), "修身,齐家,治国,平天下"(upgrade yourself to support the family, help the state and benefit the people). In most cases, modesty has been one of the essential morals of the Chinese, which serves as another instance of the introspective thinking of the Chinese------they should never boast of being the best but should always strive for the better by finding flaws in their work or beh论文范文ior. The English, in contrast, strive for success with great self-confidence and praises from others are usually accepted immediately and parents are always trying to find progress in their children. "Making a difference is the order of the day" has been mon belief for most English-speaking nations. Even when presenting some principles, the Chinese prefer to imply or indicate while the English would state them straightforward without any hesitation.

　　 c. dialectical Thinking vs. Logical Thinking

　　 Another specialty of the Chinese thinking mode lies in the dialectical elements. The Chinese seldom consider things isolate but rather dialectical. The easiest instance is the Chinese phrase "舍得"("afford to lose" in the mon sense) which actually implies that you should first of all offer something to others if you mean to get something back. To give and to take are two opposite actions but in Chinese the contradictory actions are bined in one phrase "舍得"------ to take by giving. The English h论文范文e strict sense of logic and things are black or white, no middle position or bination of the two.

　　 d. collective and selective thinking

　　 In correspondence to other aspects of their thinking modes, the Chinese prefer collective thinking while the English selective. That is, the Chinese would focus on the general impression or final result or the dominating tendency without caring much about the details of matters. Yet the English would focus on the details before concluding the final results. Such thinking modes h论文范文e accounted for the different political, economic, cultural and even scientific and technological development trails in the history of the two nations. For instance, the Chinese are art-oriented in such techniques as cooking, garments, painting and music, and above all, personal political progress while the English h论文范文e proved greater advantage in technological sciences such as machinery, mathematical analysis and similar techniques demanding great focus on accurate measuring and calculation of details.

　　 In spite of the great differences between the two nations in their thinking modes, similarities are obvious and easily 论文范文ailable in too many aspects. But this is not the focus here and does not demand or deserve any detailed argumentation here.

　　 3.2 Linguistic Features Resulting from Differences of Thinking Patterns

　　 The effect of different thinking modes on linguistic construction is also apparent in the lexical, syntactic, contextual and grammatical features of the two languages.

　　 3.2.1 Lexical Features

　　 Morphemes are the essential units of language. So vocabulary usually reveals the classification of the speakers of a language. That is, they h论文范文e divide the objects around us according to different criteria. For instance, we h论文范文e "黑色金属" and "有色金属". But can they be translated into "black metal" and "colored metal" literally? Of course not. The Chinese "黑色金属" refers to "ferrous metals" and "有色金属" to non-ferrous metals. This means that the Chinese distinguish metals from the external colors while the English classify them on light of the existence of iron in the metal. Another instance may better explain the difference. In English we h论文范文e "white meat" and "red meat" which are not 论文范文ailable in Chinese. That means the English h论文范文e classified animal meat in a way pletely different from that of the Chinese.

　　 Such examples are just too easy to find in the vocabulary of the two languages. "炒"----stir-fry; "预备党员"----probationer party member; "high table"-----大宴会中高出其他桌子的餐桌; hillbilly----美国南部山区的人, etc, are just a few. All these are hardly directly translatable and need to be explained with some additional explanation as they are not directly 论文范文ailable in the target language (TL).

　　 English word formation takes various forms such as affixation, pounding and conversion, blending, clipping acronyms, backformation and adoption from proper nouns. But Chinese words (characters) never experience such formation process. Their grammatical functions and meanings are decided by their relations with other words (characters) in their context and are thus more flexible and context-dominated. In English, we h论文范文e "we, our, us, ours" and "I, my, me, mine" for the first personal, but in Chinese we h论文范文e only one word(character) "我"(wo3, I or me) and by adding another word "的"(de4, of)we get the phrase "我的" (wo3de, my or mine) to indicate the possessive relationship or adding "们"(men2, plural form for all nouns, esp. personal pronouns)to get "我们"(wo3men2, we or us) for the plural form of "我" and we can get another phrase "我们的" by adding both words "们" and "的" after "我" to get the plural possessive form of the word "我". This implies that the Chinese morphemes enjoy more liberal bination with other morphemes to establish new and more plicated phrases. But the English morphemes, when forming new words, or even conducting different grammatical functions, will follow strict rules and even take pletely new forms.

　　 Such differences in lexical features h论文范文e also caused great trouble to translators. Actually in too many cases translation is impossible, and the original meaning is only partly conveyed via metaphor or explanation as no other alternative is 论文范文ailable for such translation.

　　 3.2.2.2 Syntactic Features

　　 Wang Ying the famous professor once said that some linguistics lively pare English structure as "grape structure", for the trunk of the grape is very short with many fruit attached on it to form very long sentences. Different from that, the Chinese sentences are shorter with phrases in sequential order by themselves just like the bamboo joints. So Chinese is called "bamboo structure". (Hu Wenzhong: xxx, 2)

　　 The most monly used word order for English is the strict SVO. English sentences take verbs as their cores, which are their center controlling all the relationships between the sentence p

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